However, following years of colonial rule and several devastating hurricanes, the island’s coffee production declined significantly. But in recent years, there has been something of a resurgence – especially with growing higher-quality coffee.

In August 2023, a Puerto Rican coffee received 92 points on Coffee Review – the highest score ever for a Puerto Rican coffee on the website. This marks a momentous milestone for the island’s coffee sector, as well as an indication that quality is only improving.

So could Puerto Rico ever become a more prominent producer of specialty coffee? To find out, I spoke to Domenico Celli Borrero, founder of Forgotten Forest, and Eduardo Trabada, co-founder of Baraka Coffee. Read on for more of their insight.

You may also like our article on the rise of Caribbean coffee roasters.

Understanding the historical complexities of Puerto Rico’s coffee sector

Similar to many other producing countries, coffee was first introduced to Puerto Rico while it was under colonial rule. In 1736, Spanish colonial powers brought coffee to the island to grow as a minor cash crop. During this time, most coffee grown in Puerto Rico was consumed locally.

But by the late 19th century, production in Puerto Rico had boomed. At its peak, the island produced more than 30 million pounds of green coffee per year (or 13.6 million kg).

In 1898, however, the US annexed the island from Spanish colonial rule, and coffee production came to a halt. Instead, farmers were incentivised to grow other cash crops like sugarcane and pineapple.

Domenico is the founder of Forgotten Forest, a unique coffee farm in La Cordillera Central mountain range in Puerto Rico. He explains how the US government influenced the island’s coffee sector.

“From the 1950s onwards, there was a concerted effort to rapidly shift the social and economic structure of Puerto Rico, and to create a more modernised economy,” he explains. “This was often carried out in neglect of – and oftentimes in direct opposition to – sustainable local agriculture.”

Since then, the island’s coffee sector has never fully recovered. Despite concerted efforts from local farmers to boost production in the 1980s, spells of economic turmoil and natural disasters (including Hurricane Georges) have had devastating consequences.

A coffee sector still in recovery

According to Domenico, since the 1990s, over 10,000 Puerto Rican farmers have abandoned coffee production in search of more profitable cash crops.

In the 2010s, the island’s production hit an all-time low, and very little was exported. Sadly, in 2017, Hurricanes Irma and Maria struck Puerto Rico – and it’s believed up to 90% of coffee plants were destroyed.

In another devastating turn of events, Hurricane Isaias also hit the island in 2020, which seriously impacted its coffee sector again. Today, there are around 4,000 coffee farmers in Puerto Rico who collectively produce some three million pounds of green coffee every year (1.4 million kg).

“On paper, you would say that Puerto Rican agriculture, and coffee production in particular, is on the verge of extinction,” Domenico says. 

Moreover, the lingering effects of colonisation and strict control of the market means that coffee prices remain low, which further disincentivises farmers not to invest in growing high-quality coffee.

“Most pickers think we’re crazy when we ask them to only harvest ripe coffee,” he adds. “Most of them say it’s impossible to do.”

The Puerto Rican coffee industry today 

Although robusta production in Puerto Rico increased slightly in the 1970s, most coffee grown on the island is arabica. Some farmers also grow small volumes of excelsa and liberica.

La Cordillera Central is the island’s main growing region due to its optimal climatic conditions. Furthermore, the mountain range’s different microclimates produce various flavour profiles which are unique to different terroirs.

Most producers use washed processing methods as Puerto Rico’s tropical climate can make it difficult to carry out natural and honey processing successfully.

But as well as being a producing region, the island also consumes a lot of coffee.

“We drink around 30 million pounds of coffee every year,” Domenico tells me. “But Puerto Rico imports anywhere from 23 to 28 million pounds of coffee from Mexico and the Dominican Republic.”

This is understandable given that production volumes have dropped so significantly over the last few decades. However, there are strict regulations when it comes to importing coffee into Puerto Rico.

As part of a rather contentious relationship due to a complex history between the US and Puerto Rico, the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) and the Puerto Rico Department of Agriculture (PRDA) are the only entities that can legally import green coffee onto the island. 

In turn, many larger roasters, including the Coca-Cola-owned Puerto Rico Coffee Roasters, buy most of this coffee. This monopolises the market, which makes it harder for smaller roasters to become more established. 

Moreover, some larger roasters tend to blend Puerto Rican coffee with lower-quality imported beans.

‘“Most consumers in Puerto Rico have no idea that they have probably never tried 100% Puerto Rican coffee,” Domenico explains. “It’s a source of pride for people, but many have no idea that the island doesn’t produce as much coffee anymore.”

Increasing imports, decreasing exports

Eduardo is a co-founder of Baraka Coffee, a pioneering specialty coffee roaster in Puerto Rico.

He tells me that today, as little as 8% to 10% of total Puerto Rican-grown coffee is exported. In comparison, he says smaller roasters like Baraka export up to 40% of their roasted coffee to other markets.

Moreover, some larger roasters also buy semitostado (or semi-roasted) coffees from the PRDA, which they then blend with locally-grown coffee. While the government states this practice is to prevent pests and diseases (such as the coffee berry borer) from entering the island, others believe it helps to reduce costs and offset falling production volumes.

When it comes to Puerto Rican specialty coffee, the vast majority is exported before local roasters have the opportunity to source beans. Additionally, prices for specialty green coffee are upwards of US $25 per lb, which leads many coffee shops and roasters on the island to buy coffee from elsewhere.

Reinvigorating local coffee culture

In response to what they feel is an often neglected sector, many of the island’s younger producers are turning to specialty coffee production.

Eduardo explains that when Baraka Coffee started in 2014, he knew of only a few producers who were using natural processing techniques. Today, he knows more than a dozen farmers who are trying out more experimental processing methods, or even growing different varieties.

Similarly, younger generations of Puerto Ricans are also becoming more interested in roasting and coffee education. Eduardo says while many panaderias (traditional bakeries) still sell dark roasted coffee, an increasing number of local coffee shops are now offering specialty coffee. Additionally, more coffee businesses are investing in higher-quality equipment and barista training opportunities.

“More coffee shops have started to see that the average consumer in Puerto Rico is becoming more interested in high-quality coffee – and that they don’t just want a pretty-looking latte,” Domenico says.

But improving access to education is also becoming more prominent across the supply chain. Domenico explains that before he started partnering with local farmers, many of them had never cupped or tasted specialty coffee – or even their own beans – before.

In some ways, this is helping to democratise the Puerto Rican coffee sector – and show local producers that when there are improvements to the island’s coffee industry, everyone can benefit.

“It’s about what we call ‘making patria’ – building something that promotes the true essence of Puerto Rican culture through our coffee sector,” Eduardo says.

How are smallholder producers helping to boost Puerto Rico’s coffee sector?

To say that the first-ever 92-point score on Coffee Review for a Puerto Rican coffee is an achievement is something of an understatement. However, it’s also important to note that Coffee Review uses a different scoring system to the Specialty Coffee Association and Coffee Quality Institute, which is less formalised and rigorous.

Domenico, who produced the anaerobic natural “cordial cherry” processed coffee, says the experience was momentous for Forgotten Forest.

“When you’re neglected for so long, you often give up or forget how great you can be,” he tells me. “Here in Puerto Rico, we have knowledge that dates back several centuries, so there’s no reason why we can’t produce world-class specialty coffee.”

Eduardo agrees, saying: “[The 92-point score from Coffee Review] was mind-blowing. Normally, most coffees grown in Puerto Rico score in the low to mid-80s, no matter how you produce them.”

The role of processing

Ultimately, given that post-harvest processing plays a huge role in improving coffee quality, Domenico believes trying out advanced processing methods is one of the ways forward for the Puerto Rican coffee sector.

He explains that Forgotten Forest started as his undergraduate project, which explored how to add value to smaller local coffee farms. But once they discovered the Typica 401 variety growing on an abandoned lot, it was an indication of the potential for high-quality coffee. Some believe that Typica 401 is a mutation of the Typica variety, which was first brought to Puerto Rico in the early 1700s. Although it produces low yields, it has a delicate and complex flavour profile.

Forgotten Forest then decided to plant a Typica 401 microlot, which they were able to quickly scale following extensive local and national media coverage. Today, Forgotten Forest has a growing network of approximately 50 farms, which carry out various agroforestry and organic farming practices. 

Partner farmers also receive seedlings, organic compost, and technical support, as well as access to financial literacy education, a processing mill, and a platform to sell their coffee to international markets.

Facing the challenges ahead

Despite a great deal of promise for Puerto Rico’s coffee sector, the island’s specialty coffee producers continue to experience a number of challenges. These include labour shortages and US federal minimum wage standards, which increase the already high costs of production.

Moreover, there is little investment in promoting Puerto Rican specialty coffee on the global market. Although some organisations, such as TechnoServe, have provided support to producers, aid programmes have long been a contentious topic among some producers on the island. 

Following Hurricane Maria, for example, several organisations distributed millions of seedlings to coffee farmers – but most were high-yielding and low-quality varieties for larger farms.

“There have been cuts to local aid programmes over the last few decades,” Domenico says, “The availability of subsidies, fertilisers, calcium powder, and other common farming inputs have been in decline.” 

Raising awareness

As there is no official Specialty Coffee Association chapter in Puerto Rico, local producers and roasters have started to organise to raise awareness of the island’s specialty coffee sector.

Domenico explains that one solution is “radical traceability”. For instance, Forgotten Forest created a tracking platform where buyers can track its coffees across the entire value chain.

Baraka Coffee also promotes a similar level of transparency which helps to bridge the gap between consumers and producers.

“Producers are doing what they can to keep Puerto Rico’s coffee – and our cultural heritage – alive,” he concludes.

It’s obvious that coffee is incredibly meaningful to Puerto Rico and its culture. Despite years of hardship and challenges, the sector remains resilient and determined to improve. 

It will certainly take some time before the island starts to produce and export more specialty coffee. In the meantime, smallholder producers need to receive much more support and guidance.

Enjoyed this? Then read our article on Puerto Rican coffee: The bittersweet history & rise of specialty.

Editor’s note: This article was edited on 17 October 2023 to distinguish between scoring systems for Coffee Review and the Specialty Coffee Association and Coffee Quality Institute.

Photo credits: Baraka Coffee, Sebastian Castillo, Chelsea Cloud, Chris Hamlet

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Sadly, however, production volumes began to decline shortly after for a number of reasons. Today, although the country is not widely recognised for its coffee, its unique tropical climate is well suited for coffee production. Moreover, as a result of climate change, coffee cultivation is becoming more widespread in Sri Lanka. 

Over the past few decades, yields have been steadily increasing. According to data from the Sri Lanka Export Development Board, coffee exports rose by a staggering 84% between 2017 and 2019.

At the same time, the quality of Sri Lankan coffee is also improving. This is largely attributed to industry stakeholders and supply chain actors establishing better connections with producers. In turn, this helps them to implement farming best practices and develop more formal training programmes. 

So how could Sri Lanka start growing more specialty coffee and unlock the full potential of its coffee sector? To find out, I spoke to several industry professionals at the Market Development Facility, as well as three local coffee companies. Read on to find out more.

You may also like our article on specialty coffee in Sri Lanka: from production to consumption.

When was coffee first grown in Sri Lanka?

Coffee was first introduced to Sri Lanka in the early 16th century, but only the plants’ leaves and flowers were used (largely for culinary and ceremonial purposes). It was during Dutch colonial rule (which lasted until 1796) that coffee was grown for consumption, but first attempts were relatively unsuccessful.

However, under British colonial rule, the country’s coffee sector began to expand. It was around 1864 that production peaked – with around 111,289 ha used for growing coffee. Unfortunately, this success was relatively short-lived.

In 1868, a major outbreak of coffee leaf rust devastated Sri Lankan coffee production. This forced many producers to grow tea instead. By the 1890s, the area used for coffee cultivation had shrunk to around 4,609 ha. 

The following century was somewhat of a slow path to recovery for Sri Lanka’s coffee sector, but progress was made. In the 1980s, farmers were growing coffee across 12,140 ha – resulting in the country’s exports reaching a record 3.3 million kg.

Over the past decade or so, there has been significant investment in the Sri Lankan coffee sector, which has helped to steadily increase both yields and quality.

An overview of Sri Lankan coffee production

Today, Sri Lanka grows both robusta and arabica. But production of the latter has grown in recent years – largely due to the efforts of the Department of Export Agriculture in Sri Lanka, which has been actively encouraging arabica production in the central highlands. This area includes the main arabica-growing regions such as Nuwara Eliya, Badulla, Kandy, and Matale.

Rinosh Nasar is the founder and CEO of Soul Coffee Company, which exclusively sells Sri Lankan coffee. 

“Today, while most coffee produced in Sri Lanka is robusta, arabica planting has increased significantly in recent years,” he says. “It’s soon expected that arabica production volumes will surpass those for robusta.”

The main reason for this has been the extensive development of and investment in planting arabica varieties. During the 1980s, the San Ramon variety (which is related to Typica) was intercropped with tea, followed by Catimor in the 1990s and Lakparakum in the 2000s.

The Lakparakum variety in particular is preferred by farmers because of its high yields, uniform ripening patterns, and tolerance to coffee leaf rust, as well as its potential for high cup quality.

Other common arabica varieties grown in Sri Lanka include S9 and HDT.

When it comes to exports, the country’s Export Development Board states that the US, Middle East, Maldives, Australia, China, and Japan are some of the major markets for Sri Lankan coffee.

What about processing methods?

Post-harvest activities, including processing techniques, are believed to be responsible for up to 60% of final cup quality. This means they are vital to consider.

Kushan Samararatne is the general manager at Colombo Coffee Company, a total coffee solutions provider in Sri Lanka.

“Washed and natural processing methods are the most common,” he says.

However, in the early 2010s, there were only a few processing facilities (as well as roasting companies) across the country. In turn, most producers process coffee on their farms.

Subraja Subramaniam is part of the Research, Impact, Measurement, and Inclusion (RIMI) team at the Market Development Facility. Funded by the Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, MDF is a multi-country initiative that promotes sustainable economic development throughout the Pacific region, including in Sri Lanka.

“Most of the country’s coffee that is exported is processed on farms, and producers generally use natural sun-drying processing techniques,” she says. “The country’s centralised processing system also uses washed processing methods, which tend to receive higher cup scores and better cup quality.”

Opportunities to improve coffee quality

Like in many other coffee-growing countries, Sri Lankan producers face certain challenges when it comes to scaling yields and improving quality.

MDF defines four key opportunities to invest in Sri Lanka’s coffee sector:

• Scaling coffee-growing areas
• Expanding coffee smallholder groups and improving quality on farms
• Developing processing facilities
• Improving industry coordination and promotion

It’s estimated that up to 80% of the island nation’s total coffee production comes from smallholder farmers, who are more likely to require additional support and improved access to financial resources.

Additionally, women represent about 60% of the workforce, so ensuring gender equity initiatives are in place is essential. This is particularly important because closing the gender gap in coffee production could increase global output by 4%. This equates to around 30 billion extra cups of coffee per year.

Deshan Wickremasinghe is the Business Advisor for the Coffee Unit at MDF. 

“The main barriers to the growth of the Sri Lankan coffee sector are low yields, inconsistencies in quality, and limitations to producer knowledge,” he says. “While there are 23 large regional plantation companies in Sri Lanka, they are mainly focused on producing tea and rubber. 

“However, they are actively diversifying their crops, and coffee is one of the major crops that producers are considering growing,” he adds.

Around 200,000 ha is currently used for tea cultivation in Sri Lanka, yet marginal and unproductive land has been left abandoned. Converting small parcels of this land to coffee cultivation could help boost production levels significantly.

With a focus on processing methods in particular, there is also huge potential to develop the country’s centralised processing facilities. In theory, this would help to better maintain uniformity of green coffee, as well as preserve quality and minimise waste.

A focus on training and education

Vishan Rajakaruna is a Business Advisor for the Coffee Unit at MDF. He emphasises how farming best practices are integral to growing higher-quality coffee.

“Farmers need to be educated on plant maintenance, such as pruning and applying nutrients, to ensure healthy plant growth,” he mentions. “They also need to be trained on selective picking techniques to harvest only ripe cherries, while also understanding how certain harvesting and post-harvest management practices can impact quality.

“To enhance farmer knowledge, we must also share information with them about how the specialty coffee market functions,” he adds.

Kushan agrees, saying: “Developing overall coffee quality in Sri Lanka requires a multi-faceted approach which focuses on implementing best practices, raising awareness about the financial benefits of complying with these practices, increasing knowledge sharing, and investing in better infrastructure and equipment.”

Beyond production, however, there are other ways to support the Sri Lanka coffee industry – as increasing domestic consumption is crucial, too.

For instance, local roasters need to know how to source high-quality coffee, as well as how to best roast and store coffee. At the same time, coffee shop owners and baristas need to receive formal training and have access to high-quality equipment. Eventually, this could lead to more Sri Lankan baristas competing at an international level, including at the World Coffee Championships.

Could Sri Lanka become a more renowned specialty coffee origin in the future?

Considering its history and the recent level of investment in farmer training, it’s certainly evident that Sri Lanka has plenty of potential to grow higher-quality coffee – as long as producers receive the right support.

Tharanga Muramudali is the founder and Chairman of Helanta Coffee, a coffee farm and processing facility in Sri Lanka. 

“There is a clear production gap when it comes to Sri Lankan specialty coffee,” he says. “Harvest volumes are too low, so we need to encourage farmers to plant new trees.

“There is also a knowledge gap regarding harvesting and processing techniques,” he adds. “Baristas also need to be upskilled as they have the potential to be the face of Sri Lankan coffee on a global scale, especially at events and competitions.”

Along with other industry stakeholders, MDF has played an important role in supporting these areas of the country’s coffee sector – including publishing the Sri Lanka Arabica coffee value chain analysis report and Sri Lanka’s Coffee Renaissance: A Guide to the Specialty Coffee Industry.

“MDF has been a key player in the Sri Lankan specialty coffee sector over the past few years,” Rinosh explains. “The organisation has been actively partnering with supply chain actors in the Sri Lankan coffee industry, and has been championing its growth. 

“Today, MDF is a pivotal stakeholder in developing the sector even further by providing funding for projects, sharing technical knowledge, and offering specialised support services,” he adds.

Increasing the market for Sri Lankan specialty coffee

Vishan explains that MDF attended the 2022 Melbourne International Coffee Expo, where it showcased Sri Lankan specialty coffee on a global scale. 

“There was a very positive response – people enjoyed the unique flavour profiles,” he tells me. “Sri Lankan coffee usually has notes of orange with pleasant acidity and a very good body.

“The expo generated a lot of interest in Sri Lanka as a specialty coffee origin, with Sri Lankan coffee receiving cupping scores as high as 86 points,” he adds.

Given its history, Sri Lanka has plenty of potential to keep growing higher-quality coffee. Moreover, with improved access to resources and more formal training opportunities, the future seems promising.

However, for production to grow sustainably, the country’s coffee sector needs ongoing support – most notably when it comes to scaling coffee-growing areas and improving best practices for processing methods.

Enjoyed this? Then read our article on micro lots & Monsoon Malabar: India’s future as a coffee origin.

Photo credits: Market Development Facility, Upcountry Brothers

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Primarily a tea-growing and drinking nation, coffee production is still relatively new to Nepal. According to the Nepalese government’s National Tea and Coffee Development Board (NTCDB), it was only between the 1980s and 1990s that coffee was grown on a commercial scale in the country.

The NTCDB reports that in the 2021/22 harvest season, Nepal produced 354.9 tonnes of coffee. While this is a decline from the record 530 tonnes produced in 2018/19, production volumes have been increasing in recent years.

The country grows high-quality arabica – and there is clear potential that specialty coffee production could increase, too.

Bhavi Patel is a dairy technologist and food and travel writer, who has been writing extensively about the global coffee industry for some years now.

In this article, she explores the Nepalese coffee sector, the challenges that local farmers face, and whether the country can grow more specialty coffee. 

You may also like our article on micro lots & Monsoon Malabar: India’s future as a coffee origin.

When was coffee introduced to Nepal?

Similar to India and other producing countries, coffee is not native to Nepal. It’s believed that in 1938, nomadic hermit Hira Giri brought coffee seeds from Burma (now known as Myanmar) back to Nepal.

Hira Giri is said to have planted the seeds in Aapchaur – a hill village in the Gulmi District. However, it took another thirty years for coffee production to start increasing in the country when the Nepalese government imported coffee seeds from India in 1968. 

Throughout the following decade, small-scale coffee production spread to other regions of Nepal, including Palpa, Syangja, Kaski, and Baglung.

Commercial coffee production in Nepal

By the mid-1980s, however, farmers started to grow coffee on a commercial scale. Between 1983 and 1984, the Nepal Coffee Company (NeCCo) was established in Manigram in the Rupandehi district. This meant local farmers could collectively process and dry mill their coffees for export, which helped to boost production volumes.

Throughout the 1990s and early 2000s, more and more farmers started to grow coffee. In response, Nepal’s Ministry of Agriculture launched the Coffee Development Programme, which provided technical and financial support to local producers.

Today, the International Coffee Organisation estimates that across 42 districts in the country, there are over 32,500 households involved in coffee production. Moreover, research from Specialty Coffee Nepal, a non-profit organisation which promotes Nepalese specialty coffee culture, says that some 45% of coffee farmers are women. 

The Kavrepalanchok district in eastern Nepal is the largest coffee-producing region in the country – spanning 273ha and producing more than 32 tonnes of coffee. The second-largest coffee-growing district is the Gulmi district in western Nepal, which spans 231ha and produces 27 tonnes of coffee.

Common varieties and processing techniques

Nepal’s climate and landscape make it ideal for growing arabica – mostly because of its high altitudes. In fact, many industry professionals say only arabica grows in Nepal.

Surya Dura is the founder and Managing Director at Lake City Coffee in Pokhara, Nepal.

“About 80% of the coffee produced in Nepal can be categorised as specialty-grade coffee,” he says. “In the 2022/23 harvest season, coffee production is expected to increase to about 400 tonnes.”

The most common varieties found in Nepal are Bourbon, Pacamara, Typica, Caturra, and Catimor – certainly an indication of high-quality coffee.

Most farmers use washed processing methods, however, more producers are experimenting with natural and honey processing techniques. In recent years, anaerobic natural fermentation has started to become more popular, too.

Generally speaking, Nepalese coffee has unique floral and chocolate flavour notes, with some distinct nuttier flavours. The biggest importers of the country’s coffee are Germany, Japan, the US, South Korea, and the Netherlands.

How do people drink coffee in Nepal?

Historically, Nepal is a tea-drinking country. However, coffee consumption has been steadily growing for some years.

“Nepalese baristas working in other countries help to promote homegrown coffee,” says a representative from Specialty Coffee Nepal. “More and more coffee events are also happening in the country, which also helps to bring people from across the value chain together, as well as drawing more attention to Nepalese coffee.”

In line with this, there are more specialty coffee roasters, coffee shops, and education facilities opening in Nepal. A representative from Specialty Coffee Nepal tells me that some of the most notable specialty coffee roasters in the country include Mount Brew Coffee, Nya No Specialty Coffee, Brewshala Coffee, and many more.

Deepak Paudel is a renowned coffee professional in Nepal. He is also the founder of the Pokhara Coffee Roastery.

“Because it is often easier and quicker to learn barista skills than any other profession in the coffee industry, more and more younger people show interest in the position,” he says. “Some of them are also moving to other countries to broaden their skills so they can return to Nepal after a few years and potentially open their own coffee shops.”

Deepak adds that many Nepalese baristas work in Middle Eastern countries or in Australia, where specialty coffee culture is particularly popular.

Popular drinks and brewing methods

As in many other countries, milk-based drinks – such as cappuccinos and lattes – are popular among consumers in Nepal.

However, in recent years, more and more Nepalese coffee shops are using manual pour over brewers. As part of this, we’re seeing more baristas push to get formal training to improve coffee quality, as well as roasters offering classes and educational courses.

Furthermore, coffee consumers in the country are also showing more interest in preparing café-quality drinks at home – with some taking part in coffee workshops. Companies like Brewing House distribute and supply equipment to coffee businesses and consumers alike.

Challenges in the Nepalese coffee sector

Although figures indicate a steady increase in Nepal’s coffee production volumes in the coming years, farmers in the country still face a number of challenges.

As with many other producing countries, Nepalese coffee farmers are dealing with the effects of climate change and a shortage of workers.

Global warming poses several concerning issues for Nepal’s coffee sector. For instance, unpredictable rainfall and frost often damage cherries and blossoms on branches, which can heavily affect quality and yields.

Moreover, the impact of climate change also increases coffee plants’ vulnerabilities to pests and diseases – in particular the white stem borer (Xylotrechus quadripes). 

The Gulmi district underwent a white stem borer epidemic in 2016, which severely affected coffee producers in the region. In some cases, farmers in Nepal have reported up to 60% loss in annual yields because of the insect, which lays its eggs in the branches of coffee plants. Eventually, the plant stops producing cherries and dies.

Even more concerning are the long term effects of climate change on Nepal. Research from Kunming University suggests that Nepal will see a significant shift in its agroclimatic zones over the next few decades. In turn, this could result in up to 72% of the country’s coffee-growing areas becoming unsuitable by 2050.

Labour issues

Many origin countries are currently experiencing labour shortages in their agricultural sectors, including for coffee.

The representative from Specialty Coffee Nepal explains that in Nepal, there are three major reasons for labour issues:

• Low wages
• Lack of formal training and education for farming best practices
• Waning interest in working in agriculture

“Another issue in the Nepalese coffee sector is workers moving to other countries for employment,” Surya says. 

Fluctuations in market prices also lead to further difficulties, which is why some farmers choose to join co-operatives. Co-ops provide a number of benefits to their members, including improving access to several markets, formal training programmes, and farming inputs.

Tulasi Raj Dhital is the founder and chairman at the Central Coffee Co-operative Union Ltd. (CCCU) in Kathmandu, Nepal. 

“The prices that farmers receive for cherry and parchment coffee are fixed by the NTCDB in coordination with other stakeholders, including co-operatives,” he explains. “This means that members know beforehand what they will be paid.

“This helps to ensure co-operative members get a fair price for their coffee,” he adds. “We also help producers understand new farming techniques that help to improve yields and plant health.”

How could the Nepalese coffee sector grow over the next decade?

Ultimately, if coffee production is to become more sustainable in Nepal, farmers need to know how to adapt to the effects of climate change by implementing more climate-smart agricultural practices. Intercropping coffee with other plants, such as bananas, could also be beneficial as they can provide much-needed shade cover.

“If we could plant more coffee using proper farming techniques, as well as planting new varieties, then Nepalese coffee production could grow on a much larger scale in the next decade,” Surya explains. “Improving knowledge, planting a wider range of varieties, and encouraging more young people to take part in coffee production are the three main ways we can grow the country’s specialty coffee sector.

“Specialty coffee production has just started in Nepal, and it’s still yet to gain a big market, but it could happen soon – Nepalese coffee has a lot of potential,” he adds.

The representative from Specialty Coffee Nepal tells me that measures to provide more formal training are already underway.

“Some agricultural institutions in the country have already started including a coffee-focused syllabus as part of their curriculum,” they say. “Farmers need to have proper training, as well as more awareness about planting, harvesting, and processing coffee in the best possible ways.”

Tulasi believes that the country’s government also needs to provide more support to coffee farmers.

“Strengthening and improving logistical and transport facilities would be immensely helpful to coffee farmers,” he tells me.

What about driving consumption?

When it comes to education, Deepak says that it also plays a key role. He explains that he is working hard to attract the attention of the Specialty Coffee Association, which he believes would help baristas and roasters, as well as coffee farmers, to gain better access to different training programmes and events.

In terms of coffee competitions, Deepak believes that Nepal could one day host its own National Barista Championship or AeroPress Championship.

“Nepal already has national champions, but they’re representing other countries,” he tells me. “There are many local coffee competitions taking place, so it shouldn’t be too long before we reach the world stage.”

It’s safe to say that there’s plenty of potential for Nepal to scale its coffee production. And with more people drinking specialty coffee than ever, the future certainly looks promising.

However, at the same time, it’s also clear that for both production and consumption to grow sustainably, Nepal’s coffee sector needs more support – especially when it comes to adapting to climate change.

Enjoyed this? Then read our article on the white stem borer: a threat to the Nepalese coffee industry?

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According to Index Mundi, Liberia’s coffee production peaked at 209,000 60kg bags in 1985. But in the years since, coffee production has dropped considerably for a number of complex reasons. As part of this decline, more farmers are growing more profitable cash crops instead, such as cocoa and natural rubber.

However, when it comes to its coffee production, Liberia is perhaps best known for Coffea liberica: a coffee species that produces large cherries. In part, this helps to enhance the sweetness of liberica, as well as prolonging its aftertaste. In recent years, these qualities have helped to increase liberica’s presence in the specialty coffee sector.

To learn more about whether Liberia’s coffee sector can grow in the coming years, I spoke to two local experts. Read on for more of their insight.

You may also like our article on Coffea liberica.

A history of coffee in Liberia

In order to understand the Liberian coffee sector, we first need to take a look at the country’s complex history.

Indigenous people have been living in West Africa for millennia, including in Liberia. Archaeologists have found clear evidence that human activity dates back to the Lower Paleolithic period in the region.

However, Liberia’s population increased significantly in the early 19th century. Under the guidance of the American Colonisation Society, former slaves in the US migrated (albeit some of this was forced) to Africa. 

The organisation, which was founded in 1816, was designed to encourage liberated slaves to leave the US – but mainly for prejudiced and discriminatory reasons. Understandably, many African Americans strongly opposed the organisation, however, others believed that migrating out of the US could result in them facing less social and legal oppression.

Many former slaves who migrated (whether willing or unwilling) settled in Liberia. In 1848, the country elected Joseph Jenkins Roberts as its first president, but it took another 14 years to globally recognise Liberia as an independent state.

However, there was clear division between US migrants and indigenous Liberian communities, such as the Kru and Grebo people. This was for a number of complex reasons, including establishing plantations and forcing indigenous people to work as slaves.

As a result of forced labour, as well as receiving significant investment from the US, Liberia’s exports began to increase. While most of these exports were rubber, the country also traded small volumes of coffee.

Following a military coup in 1980 and an insurrection in 1989, however, the country entered decades of civil unrest and conflict. As well as the devastating impact on the country’s coffee sector, thousands of people died.

A brief history of Coffea liberica

Although Liberia mostly grows robusta, it is arguably more well-known for another coffee species: liberica.

According to the 2022 research paper The re-emergence of Liberica coffee as a major crop plant, liberica is indigenous to most of the tropical regions in West and Central Africa. 

It’s believed that after growing wild for centuries, liberica seeds were disseminated from Ghana, Liberia, and Sierra Leone in the 1870s for wider commercial coffee production. In turn, several Southeast Asian countries started to grow liberica instead of arabica, which was under threat because of coffee leaf rust outbreaks at the time.

The paper also states that between 1880 and 1900, global production volumes of liberica were similar to that of arabica in some countries. This was mostly because liberica is a robust, high-yielding plant which can grow at low elevations and produce large cherries – which made it favourable among farmers.

However, liberica’s popularity proved to be short-lived. Following concerns over poor quality, there was a significant drop in demand for liberica. This is was mostly related to the large size of the cherries, which made it difficult to process them.

Understanding coffee production in Liberia

Robert Kollie is the Board Chair at Green Future Agro Inc. in Liberia.

“Coffee producers in Liberia grow robusta and liberica,” he says. 

Robusta mostly grows in central and northern Liberia. Some of the biggest coffee-producing regions include Nimba, Lofa, Bong, Grand Cape Mount, River Gee, and Margibi.

“At our co-operative, we sell seedlings and planting materials to farmers,” Robert explains. “We also provide technical support to farmers, and if a producer wants to manage their own farm or start a coffee business, we help them to estimate costs.”

However, because of years of conflict, many farmers abandoned their coffee farms.

In an attempt to revitalise the country’s coffee sector, the International Trade Centre (ITC) helped to disseminate some 4,400 seedlings to farmers. However, it’s clear that more work needs to be done.

Tyler Papula is the co-founder and CEO at Liberica Coffee Company in Liberia. He also works in partnership with Save More Kids as a Campaign and Project Co-ordinator, as well as with the SMK Agricultural Co-operative. The latter helps to provide agricultural training to farmers, as well as assisting with farm rehabilitation and infrastructure improvements, with the aim of increasing coffee quality and quantity.

He tells me that it’s common to find coffee growing wild in forests in Liberia – especially liberica. However, it can be anywhere from difficult to impossible to harvest the cherries because the plants grow so tall.

When it comes to coffee processing, Robert explains that there is a significant gap in technical knowledge and access to resources.

“There are only a very small number of processing facilities in Liberia, but even they aren’t well equipped,” he says. “Most of our farmers send their coffee to the Ivory Coast or sometimes Guinea.”

How is coffee processed and traded in Liberia?

After harvesting, almost all cherry is left to dry in the sun on patios. Following this, some farmers then export their cherry to the Ivory Coast, where it will be dry milled.

Robert tells me that Green Future Agro is working to enable more farmers to dry mill their own coffee, thereby retaining more value.

“After a training session we attended in Togo, we imported a coffee milling machine which can process dried cherry,” he says. “We plan on buying the machine so that we can better support our farmers.

“The farmers will pay a small fee at the end of every month so that we can process their coffee,” he adds.

Prior to the First Liberian Civil War, the Liberian Produce Marketing Corporation (LPMC) was responsible for the country’s agriculture sector, including coffee. The organisation handled a number of tasks, such as providing producers with farming inputs, carrying out quality control checks, inspecting farms, and managing exports of coffee.

However, in the years since the Second Liberian Civil War, the LPMC has struggled to regain full control of coffee exports. In turn, some farmers in Liberia cross the border over to Cote d’Ivoire or Guinea to sell their dried cherry.

Other producers sell their dried cherry to agents, who then transport the coffee to the Ivory Coast, Guinea, or Sierra Leone, where it is sold. Ultimately, this means most of the coffee produced in Liberia isn’t consumed domestically. 

Does Liberia roast and consume coffee?

Robert tells me that there are no real commercial roasters in Liberia.

“We want to change this,” he says. “We try to encourage farmers to taste their own coffee.

“As part of this, the ITC held a workshop on how to operate a roaster and coffee shop,” he adds.

The majority of coffee consumed in Liberia is imported from neighbouring countries. And while there are no coffee shops, some hotels and restaurants serve coffee. For the most part, people drink instant coffee, including Nescafé.

“We plan to open our own coffee shop,” Robert says. “This means Liberian farmers will be able to taste their own coffee.”

Addressing challenges

Tyler says that many of the issues which Liberian coffee farmers face are complex.

“The country’s coffee sector is somewhat disorganised,” he says. “Moreover, people don’t see Liberian coffee as being high quality.

“The biggest challenge is changing the mindset of producers,” he adds. “Some farmers are excited at the prospect of improving coffee quality and yields, but others are still hesitant.”

Moreover, there is a distinct lack of access to financial support for many coffee farmers, which means it’s difficult to acquire farming inputs like fertilisers. Ultimately, until access to resources and financial support improve, coffee quality and yields can’t increase.

Improving access to resources and support

“There is little support from the government,” Tyler explains. “This makes coffee production very difficult – farmers need access to loans, as well as more co-operatives providing seedlings to them.

“There also needs to be improvements to Liberia’s overall infrastructure,” he adds. “This way, we can encourage more entrepreneurship and mitigate corruption as well.”

For instance, the road infrastructure in some producing areas is poor, which means farmers can’t transport their coffee to processing facilities or to the capital city of Monrovia for export.

And while interest in liberica from the specialty coffee sector has increased recently – notably as a result of 2021 World Barista Championship finalist Hugh Kelly’s routine – production volumes are still too low to meet rising demand.

Robert believes that the way forward is to encourage farmers to add more value to their coffee – mainly through processing and roasting.

“For farmers, processing coffee themselves, and then roasting and tasting it, will allow them to be more engaged in growing coffee,” he says. “However, first and foremost, we need to provide high-quality farming inputs and seedlings.”

Liberia’s history is deeply complex, and the country’s coffee farmers continue to face a number of challenges. Ultimately, if things are to improve, access to financial support, infrastructure, and resources need to increase considerably.

“We have lots of land available for coffee production,” Robert concludes. “There are a lot of mountainous regions which are suitable for growing high-quality coffee, but a support system for farmers is seriously lacking.”

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Despite its small size (approximately 57,000km²), Togo has a diverse climate. While the northern part of the country is more dry and arid, central Togo is home to many plateaus and mountainous regions which are suitable for coffee production.

Like many other West African countries, Togo’s economy is significantly dependent on agriculture – with coffee, cotton, and cocoa being the major cash crops. Cotton is by far the country’s biggest export, while coffee accounts for around 5% of its export revenue. 

Sadly, a substantial lack of investment in the Togolese coffee sector has forced many farmers to abandon production altogether. In turn, many Togolese coffee plants are becoming older and less productive.

To learn more about Togo’s coffee sector, and the challenges which producers face, I spoke with two local professionals. Read on to find out what they had to say.

You may also like our article exploring coffee production in Sierra Leone.

A brief overview of coffee production in Togo

Compared to other coffee-producing countries in Africa, Togo has a relatively short history of coffee production.

It’s believed that coffee was first cultivated in the country during the 1920s, when the country was under French colonial rule.

For the first few decades, the country’s coffee sector was controlled by several foreign exporters who purchased coffee directly from producers. However, after the formation of the Togo Office of Agricultural Products (OPAT) in 1964, the Togolese government started to oversee and manage production.

According to the International Coffee Organisation (ICO), OPAT was largely responsible for marketing coffee to international markets and setting annual domestic prices for coffee, while domestic marketing was managed by private sector stakeholders. Under this model, former exporters became coffee buyers.

During the 1980s, as per figures from the ICO, coffee production in Togo reached an average of around 260,000 60kg bags per year – a figure that has since steadily decreased for a number of reasons. In the early 1990s, according to the ICO, low coffee prices and less productive farms and plantations led to market liberalisation. Ultimately, this resulted in a number of radical reforms in Togolese coffee production – which included more simplified quality control measures.

Amuzu Koffi Mensah is an operations manager at Café Kloto, a roaster which sources coffee from the Togolese highlands. He tells me that coffee is the country’s second-largest export crop.

“More than 40,000 households in the country work in coffee production,” he says. “The major producing areas are in the southwest of the country in the Agou, Kloto, Danyi, Amou-Okposo plateau, and Wawa regions.”

Today, Togo mainly grows robusta – most of which is grown by smallholder farmers who also produce cocoa. For many years, the country’s robusta was highly sought-after thanks to its high quality, but over time, demand has steadily decreased.

Prior to 2000, the total acreage of Togo’s coffee production was 40,000ha, but this has since halved. Amuzu explains that many coffee trees in the country are very old and have become incapable of producing high yields.

In 2017, the ICO reported that Togo produced 6.9 million tonnes of coffee. However, by 2020, this volume had plummeted to 2.4 million tonnes, representing a drop of nearly 35% over a three-year period.

Many Togolese producers grow an old robusta variety which is locally referred to as “Niaouli”. It’s believed that this robusta variety was first cultivated under colonial rule in the 1920s. 

“After harvesting and drying, coffee is sent to a processing plant,” Amuzu says. “Here, it undergoes natural or washed processing.”

Support for Togolese coffee producers

Historically, there has been a distinct lack of government support for the country’s coffee farmers, which has made it difficult for smallholders to gain access to fertilisers and other agricultural inputs. 

Furthermore, the coffee sector’s market liberalisation has largely favoured more established farmers who grow higher volumes of coffee – granting them more access to finance and resources.

Today, the Coffee and Cocoa Sector Coordinating Committee (CCFCC) is responsible for the management of coffee production in Togo. The CCFCC provides farmers with access to training and education, but its system is largely still more beneficial to larger producers.

Local farmers say that there is support from private sector stakeholders to improve access to agricultural inputs, but this is often minimal. Moreover, demand for these resources remains relatively low as many farmers are unable to afford them.

In recent years, the Coffee and Cocoa Technical Unit (UTCC) developed an extension services system that provides support to farmers in more rural areas. As part of this initiative, trained professionals are sent to coffee farms to assist producers with agricultural best practices.

Currently, the UTCC operates an office in Kpalime – a town in southwest Togo. The office trains specialists for each of the country’s eight administrative districts. In turn, these district specialists train and supervise technical advisors who work in each of the country’s coffee-growing regions.

Marketing and value addition

According to Amuzu, around 98% of Togo’s coffee production is exported, with major importers including France, Belgium, Germany, Italy, and Poland.

However, Covid-19 had a significant impact on the country’s coffee sector, which led to a steep decline in exports. Amuzu also believes that the situation was exacerbated by the mismanagement of funds for its coffee sector. 

“Moreover, domestic coffee consumption remains low because of a lack of technical and financial support,” he adds.

A steady decline in demand for Togolese coffee is undoubtedly adding to existing issues, too. In spite of this, there is a growing focus on increasing domestic consumption of Togolese coffee, with a number of initiatives in place.

Father François Komi Amouzou is the coffee processing manager at the Abbey of the Ascension in Dzogbégan, which is located in Togo’s plateau region. Here, monks have been growing arabica, robusta, and hybrid varieties since the 1970s – largely motivated by the purported medicinal effects of coffee, but also by the number of visitors the monastery receives.

“The original idea was to grow and process coffee for our own consumption, as well as for visitors,” he explains. “However, we then decided to sell roasted coffee for the local community.

“We want local people to experience the flavours of Togolese coffee,” he says. “We currently roast around eight or nine tonnes every year.”

For the most part, the majority of coffee consumed in Togo is instant coffee. Father Francois tells me that there are no coffee shops in the plateau region, but the Abbey is attempting to shift local perceptions about drinking higher-quality coffee.

To help increase local demand for Togolese coffee, the Inter-African Coffee Organisation (IACO) partnered with the CCFCC to establish coffee kiosks in the capital city of Lomé, with plans to extend the project to other areas of the country.

As part of the same initiative, some Togolese roasters take part in training workshops held in Gabon.

Addressing challenges in the sector

Amuzu explains that the lack of technical support for harvesting and post-harvest processing is a serious issue for smallholder producers.

“In addition to this, improving quality control measures is a major challenge in Togo’s coffee sector,” he adds. “There are few local processing units that meet good hygiene standards, and access to finance is also a big issue.”

Furthermore, the sector is also facing a labour shortage. Koffi believes that this is because many young people in the country don’t view coffee production as profitable enough, causing them to search for work opportunities in more urban areas.

To overcome some of these challenges, Togolese authorities largely rely on surplus coffee production that can be sold in the following year. Moreover, the proposed National Development Plan (PND) aims to focus on improving processing methods to add more value to coffee, as well as boosting local consumption.

Amuzu believes that the CCFCC plays an important role in strengthening Togo’s coffee sector – particularly by encouraging more women and young people to take part in coffee production.

He adds that the CCFCC is also directly addressing Togo’s ageing coffee tree population. The committee has so far replanted more 300ha of coffee trees, as well as grafting thousands of seedlings onto existing rootstocks. 

As well as these programmes, the Centre for Agronomic Research for Forest Zones (CRA/F) has cultivated seven new varieties, although volumes are still too low to disseminate to farmers across the country.

Despite many historic and current challenges, the Togolese coffee sector has shown that above all else, it is resilient. And while there is certainly potential for its robusta to increase in quality, more support will certainly be needed to help smallholder farmers in Togo improve their agricultural practices.

With the appropriate level of financial and technical support, Togo’s coffee producers may be able to improve quality and yields, and thereby help to gradually grow the country’s coffee sector. 

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Japan has a rich history of coffee consumption. From the opening of the first kissaten in the late 1880s to the emergence of third wave coffee culture in the early 2000s, the country has a longstanding relationship with coffee.

However, as well as this, a small part of Japan also technically lies in the Bean Belt, meaning it has the right climatic conditions for coffee production. The Okinawa Islands, located some 26 degrees north of the Tropics, are home to around 30 coffee farms which produce small quantities of green coffee.

To learn more about this small-scale production in Okinawa, I spoke to several local farmers. Read on to find out what they had to say about Okinawan coffee.

You may also like our article on exploring Japanese coffee shop culture.

A brief history of coffee production in Japan

It’s believed that coffee cultivation first began in Japan around 1876 on the Ogasawara Islands (also known as the Bonin Islands), which are an archipelago of over 30 subtropical and tropical islands around 1,000km south of Tokyo.

Japanese samurai and admiral Enomoto Takeaki is said to have initially proposed the idea of growing coffee on the islands to the Emperor Meiji’s government which was in power at the time. Following this, 500 coffee saplings were shipped from the Netherlands and planted on farms in the Ogasawara islands.

Some six years later, the first coffee plants were cultivated in Okinawa. However, as coffee is not native to Japan, initial trials were mostly unsuccessful. This is largely because producers had very limited knowledge and expertise, as well as little financial and technical support.

Moreover, in the early 1900s, many rural Japanese workers migrated to Brazil in search of work. A large proportion of these migrants actually worked on coffee farms, where there was a notable labour shortage.

Naturally, this meant that many of these agricultural workers came to understand more about coffee production – some of which later returned to Japan.

As such, today, many of Okinawa’s coffee trees can be genetically traced back to native Brazilian varieties.

A profile of Okinawan production

As it was not especially profitable, coffee production in Okinawa was initially more of a hobby, rather than a means of sustainable income. However, it has slowly grown over the last 120 years, and there are now about 30 coffee farms across the Okinawa Islands.

Most coffee is grown in the northern Yanburu region of the main island, however, a small number of plants are also cultivated on neighbouring islands.

The majority of Okinawan coffee is shade grown and intercropped with other tropical plants such as mango and banana. Furthermore, coffee is produced at very low altitudes, usually between 150 and 500 m.a.s.l.

Takuyuki Matayoshi is the President of Matayoshi Coffee Farm in the Yanbaru region. He tells me that he only grows arabica plants on his farm, which are mostly the Yellow Bourbon variety, with a smaller number of Red Bourbon plants. 

“Yellow Mundo Novo is also another common variety in Okinawa,” he adds.

Cherries are typically harvested from October to April. Once picked, each farm generally processes their coffee on-site.

Takuyuki explains that he uses mostly natural and honey processes at Matayoshi Farm, but notes that other methods are sometimes used by farmers in Okinawa.

What makes this coffee unique?

Although Okinawa is by no means a major coffee producing region, the expertise on the island and the conditions mean it does have the potential to yield high-quality beans.

The island’s unique terrain and climate can impart desirable flavours to the coffee – with some producers and roasters claiming that no two harvests yield the same results. As well as this, some producers are carrying out more experimental processing methods to increase quality.

Yoshiyuki Nakamura is the owner of Mame Porepore, a roaster based in Okinawa. He also placed second in the 2018 World Roasting Championship.

“I enjoy the different flavours in the coffee each year,” he tells me. “I think that Okinawa’s coffee production is still developing, so farmers’ knowledge and skills will continue to improve.”

Takuyuki describes some of the prominent flavours and qualities of Okinawan coffee.

“It’s easy to drink, with notes of black tea and a clean and refreshing aftertaste,” he says. “Also, because it grows at very low altitudes, the beans are soft which affects how it’s roasted.”

However, unfavourable weather conditions (such as typhoons) mean that some harvests can produce very low yields. Takuyuki explains that sometimes this means that no coffee can be sold.

However, in some cases, 100g of Okinawan coffee can cost up to ¥4,300 (around US $32). 

In turn, this means many local consumers are not able to afford it, but there is growing interest from Tokyo coffee shops and roasters, as well as further afield.

Agrotourism & Okinawan coffee farms

As Okinawa is a prominent tourist destination, some coffee farms on the island have capitalised by doubling as agrotourism ventures. Many provide guided farm tours and some even have spaces for visitors to stay.

These tours can be an integral part of coffee production in Okinawa as they can help to diversify farmers’ income – especially when harvests are lower than expected. 

“We invest money in running guided tours so we can also reinvest back into our farms,” Takuyuki says.

By offering these experiences, guests can tour farm facilities and understand more about the coffee supply chain.

Takayuki and his team run guided tours and educational workshops about coffee farming and processing. This, he says, ultimately helps to raise awareness. Visitors are also encouraged to participate, and drink some of the farm’s coffee as part of the process.

“Guests are then able to understand how much effort goes into one cup of coffee,” Takuyuki explains.

Unfortunately, during the pandemic, Okinawan tourism saw a sharp drop in revenue, which ultimately impacted producers, too. Alongside low yields, Takuyuki tells me that it’s been difficult for some producers to remain profitable.

Could it be successful on an international scale?

While there are a number of challenges facing Okinawan coffee production, arguably the biggest one is scale. With just 30 coffee farms across the island, it is hard to see it ever becoming anything beyond a niche coffee origin which blends cultivation with agrotourism.

However, to try and improve its international presence and share its unique insight, some local farmers have established the Okinawa Coffee Association – which is based at the University of Ryukyus on the main island.

Founded in 2014, the association carries out research, as well as holding seminars and workshops, to disseminate more information to Okinawan coffee producers and beyond.

The association’s ultimate goal is to improve the island’s agricultural practices, as well as providing more technical and financial support from the Japanese government. Effectively, it encourages farmers to not only grow, harvest, and process their own coffee, but to also market and sell it themselves in an effort to boost the local economy. 

Furthermore, in 2020, the association hosted the first ever Okinawa Coffee Summit. At the event, local producers – as well as coffee farmers from Taiwan – were able to network and share their expertise, and hopefully establish more profitable coffee production for the island.

While Japan will never be able to fulfil its consumption with domestically-grown coffee, it’s clear that Okinawan coffee is worth talking about. In the years to come, support from groups such as the Okinawa Coffee Association could see the islands begin championing a new niche, signature agricultural product.

Furthermore, despite the challenges of growing coffee on the islands, the producers there are clearly resilient. They are experimenting, and quality continues to be a part of the conversation.

Yoshiyuki is certainly right in saying: “The highlight of Okinawan coffee today is how it will grow and develop in the future.” But what exactly the future will hold remains to be seen.

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Although it’s by no means a popular coffee origin, Guinea produces significant volumes of robusta – meaning coffee is an important cash crop for the country’s economy.

In the 2015/16 harvest period, the United States Department of Agriculture reported that Guinea’s production of robusta peaked at 280,000 60kg bags.

However, following a devastating Ebola outbreak between 2014 and 2016 in West Africa, more than 2,300 deaths were recorded in Guinea alone. Furthermore, years of political instability and low coffee prices have also kept production volumes low, with some Guinean farmers abandoning coffee production altogether. But recently, several initiatives have launched in the country which are focused on reviving its coffee sector.

To find out more about the potential of Guinea’s coffee sector, I spoke with two local industry experts. Read on to learn more.

You may also like our guide to the coffee sector in Côte d’Ivoire.

An overview of coffee production in Guinea

In 2020, Guinea was the world’s 34th-largest producer of coffee. While the volumes of coffee it grows may be negligible on a global scale, it’s an important crop for many of the country’s farmers.

Coffee is grown in 15 regions across the country, including the Fouta Djallon plateau, the Ziama Massif nature reserve, and the land surrounding Mount Nimba.

Aboubacar Diallo is a coffee producer and an entrepreneur from Guinea. He says that both his father and grandfather were also coffee farmers.

He explains that most coffee farmers in the country are smallholders who own 1ha or less of land. Many of them face challenges with low yields and low prices.

The vast majority of coffee grown in Guinea is robusta, although it’s believed that there are a few farms which also grow arabica, but only on a very small scale. According to the Centre for the Promotion of Imports from developing countries (CBI), arabica was first introduced to the country at some point in the early-to-mid 1900s, but cultivation was relatively unsuccessful.

Several reports claim that certain robusta species are native to Guinea, such as Coffee mauritania, Coffea stenophylla, and Coffea liberica. In fact, one robusta variety known as Ziama-Macenta has received a geographical indication for its high quality and desirable qualities, with some coffee professionals claiming it tastes similar to some arabica varieties.

However, Aboubacar tells me that Ziama-Macenta can be a low-yielding variety.

“It’s a high-quality robusta, but the region it’s grown in is unable to fill even two containers during a harvest season because of low production volumes,” he says.

Antoine Togbodouno is a sustainability and community group leader based in the country’s capital of Conakry. He explains that low coffee yields are a widespread problem in Guinea.

“Coffee is very important to Guinea, but it mainly grows in forested areas,” he says. “A few farmer groups have formed to grow production volumes and establish better marketing, but these are few and far between.”

He adds that many farmers don’t see growing coffee as a priority, meaning that some coffee producers are left with little choice but to form small organisations to receive more support.

Processing

Harvest season typically runs from September to the end of January. However, there are few quality control systems in place, as farmers generally pick both ripe and unripe cherries and process them collectively.

“Although coffee quality can be good in Guinea, farmers need to understand more about best farming practices,” Antoine says.

Many producers don’t have access to suitable drying beds, which means that cherries are often left to dry on patios. This can lead to the coffee taking on undesirable earthy qualities once processed, if farmers aren’t careful.

“After harvesting, many farmers don’t carry out any kind of processing,” Antoine tells me. “Typically, they only dry the cherries and then sell them to buyers, who will then also sell the coffee to other buyers for further processing.”

Where does Guinean coffee end up?

The vast majority of Guinea’s coffee is exported. As a result of a formal lack of best practices for harvesting and processing, many Guinean producers receive very low prices for their coffee.

“There is very little formally-certified specialty coffee in Guinea,” Aboubacar says. “There is potential with the Ziama-Macenta variety, but there are several financial and technical barriers to improve quality.”

Once coffee is transported to cities – typically Macenta, which is close to the border with Liberia – foreign buyers purchase it from local agents. The coffee is then sorted and undergoes minor processing so that it is more suitable and stable for export. 

Lastly, the coffee is sent to warehouses – most of which are located in Conakry – before it is exported. Some of the biggest export markets for Guinean coffee are Algeria, Morocco, and Senegal, with Holland, Germany, France, Belgium, and Italy also buying smaller volumes.

However, there are also claims that because Guinea’s production volumes are so low, some of its exported coffee may actually be from Cote d’Ivoire – indicating a greater lack of traceability across the supply chain.

Consumption

For the most part, Guinea is a tea-drinking country. Most of the country’s tea is imported from Sri Lanka. However, despite this, coffee consumption is still seemingly growing – even if it is at a comparatively slow pace.

“People buy instant coffee drinks from roadside kiosks,” Antoine explains. “In coffee shops, people tend to drink black coffee.”

He adds that it’s more common for men to visit coffee shops than women, which may well be because of a number of sociocultural conventions which are still prominent in the country.

Antoine says that in Lélouma, a town in west-central Guinea, more and more coffee bars are opening.

“They are used as spaces for people to socialise and discuss certain topics, including politics and sports,” he explains.

There is also a growing number of more “formal” coffee shops in Conakry, including Café Monts Nimba which roasts locally-grown arabica and robusta. 

However, Aboubacart tells me that there are few coffee roasters in Guinea. Moreover, he says that there are no formally-trained baristas in the country.

“I want to learn how to be a professional barista,” he says. “I want to serve 100% Guinean coffee and introduce more people to the country’s coffee.”

Addressing the challenges

There’s no doubt that Guinea’s coffee sector faces a significant number of challenges. One of the most prominent issues is a lack of farmer organisations.

“There needs to be more support to organise producers into organisations or co-operatives so they can grow coffee collectively,” Antoine explains. “Producers also need seeds to plant in nurseries so they can replace ageing trees.

“Technical assistance is also very important,” he adds. “We need more formal training on how to best plant seeds and maximise yields.”

Aboubacar agrees, saying that the lack of coffee co-operatives and organisations means there is little incentive for farmers to ask for much needed support. 

Furthermore, a distinct lack of standardised quality control means that producers will continue to experience low yields and low prices.

However, Aboubacar says that a few years ago, the then-president of the country proposed an initiative to revive arabica production in northern Guinea – which has a similar climate to the highlands of Kenya and Ethiopia. 

While some seeds were imported from Rwanda, there has been little progress made with boosting Guinea’s arabica production. Moreover, the country’s Ebola Recovery Plan focused significantly on increasing overall coffee production, but efforts have been largely unsuccessful so far.

Aboubacar says he isn’t particularly optimistic about the future of the country’s coffee sector. 

“If conditions don’t improve, I anticipate that production volumes will continue to decrease over the years because farmers are becoming less interested in growing coffee,” he tells me. “It’s a lot of hard work with few rewards, including low prices.”

Following years of political instability and the devastating Ebola outbreak, Guinea’s coffee sector continues to struggle. While there is certainly potential for it to grow larger volumes of higher-quality coffee (including arabica), a lack of adequate government oversight, agricultural best practices, and quality control means more support is essential.

Ultimately, there needs to be more emphasis on forming coffee co-operatives and organisations to strengthen the country’s coffee sector, but it’s evident that these efforts will take some time.

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Between the 1960s and 1980s, Sierra Leone produced around 20,000 tonnes of coffee per year. However, following a civil war in 1991, most coffee farms were abandoned, and subsequently, production volumes sharply declined.

Despite the conflict ending in the early 2000s, coffee production unfortunately never reached the levels seen in previous decades. Furthermore, low coffee prices at that time meant many producers had little incentive to continue growing coffee.

According to Index Mundi, Sierra Leone is expected to produce around 50,000 60kg bags of green coffee in the 2021/22 harvest season – more than a 33% decrease on the previous year. But is there hope of the country’s production volumes increasing in the coming years?

To find out, I spoke with Wahlid Basoon and Dr. Jeremy Haggar. Read on to find out what they had to say about Sierra Leone’s coffee sector.

You may also like our article on Coffea stenophylla.

An overview of coffee production in Sierra Leone

Dr. Jeremy Haggar is a Professor of Agroecology at the University of Greenwich. He also co-wrote Lost and Found: Coffea stenophylla and C. affinis, the Forgotten Coffee Crop Species of West Africa with Dr. Aaron Davis of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.

He tells me about the history of Sierra Leone’s coffee industry.

“Prior to the civil war in 1991, coffee production volumes were higher than cocoa,” he says. “Now, there are many abandoned coffee farms, mostly in the northeastern province of the country.”

Walid Bahsoon is an entrepreneur in Sierra Leone. 

“Most of the coffee plants in Sierra Leone today were planted before the war,” he says. “A lack of funds means farmers aren’t able to buy fertilisers, so their yields have dropped. 

“However, there are some initiatives which support farmers to plant new seedlings and increase production,” he adds. “There is more than enough arable land in Sierra Leone [to accommodate for more coffee plants]”. 

Jeremy says that in 2013, an EU-funded programme was launched in Sierra Leone in an attempt to rehabilitate abandoned coffee farms. The project involved carrying out intensive pruning of ageing coffee plants, as well as providing producers with more farm inputs (such as fertilisers). While there may have been some levels of success from the initiative, production volumes still remain low.

Coffee in Sierra Leone is mainly grown in the Eastern province, which covers Kenema, Kailahun, and KonoKono. Other notable coffee growing areas in the country include the districts of Pujuhem, Koinadugu and Tonkolili, Moyamba, and Bo.

The majority of coffee production is carried out by third or fourth-generation smallholder farmers. The average size of a coffee farm in the country is 4ha, according to the International Coffee Organisation.

“Harvesting is mostly done by hand,” Walid tells me.

Coffee is harvested between December and March in Sierra Leone. After picking, the cherries are placed on patios to dry. However, because of higher levels of rainfall in late March, cherries harvested during this time are not able to reach the optimal moisture level (between 10% and 12%) for export.

As a result of this, as well as other complex reasons, Sierra Leone isn’t known for producing high-quality coffee – despite its potential to do so.

“Most of the country’s smallholder producers grow coffee on small parcels of land, so productivity is low,” Jeremy explains. “The co-operative model for coffee in the country is not fully developed because the market for cocoa is bigger.”

For example, Sierra Leone earned US $47.3 million in cocoa exports in 2020, compared to US $4.79 million in coffee earnings in the same year.

Most coffee grown in the country is naturally processed, as most farmers pick the beans and dry them as cherry on their farms. There have been attempts to establish washing stations, but many have been unsuccessful. Jeremy says this is because it would require significant restructuring of the country’s coffee market, as well as training and providing resources to farmers

“Producers would have to invest a lot more in harvesting,” he explains. “There would need to be a big incentive for them to do this successfully, [but currently there isn’t because coffee prices remain low.]”

Sierra Leone’s “lost” coffee species

However, despite the fact that coffee production in Sierra Leone faces its own share of challenges, some believe there are signs that it could help to offer diversification in the specialty coffee industry. 

This is largely thanks to the rediscovery of Coffea stenophylla, a wild-growing coffee species which is native to West Africa.

The species was first scientifically described in 1834. It’s widely believed that it was cultivated at scale as early as the late 19th century, along with liberica, another species native to West Africa. 

Between 2017 and 2019, a research team from the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew travelled across Sierra Leone to find wild-growing stenophylla plants. Prior to their trip, the last official sighting of the coffee species was in 1954.

Although initial fieldwork was unsuccessful, the researchers eventually found a small population of stenophylla plants growing at a low elevation. Researchers concluded that stenophylla was more resilient than arabica, mainly because it could withstand higher temperatures.

There has been little sensory or agronomic evaluation of stenophylla. However, in the years since discovering more stenophylla plants, a small sample of green beans were sent to Union Hand Roasted Coffee in London, who roasted and cupped the coffee. Their Q graders scored the coffee as equivalent to specialty grade on an arabica scale, although the exact score hasn’t been confirmed.

Today, Sierra Leone primarily produces robusta, but stenophylla is still grown on a small number of farms – although production volumes are negligible.

How is coffee marketed and traded?

Compared to other West African countries, Sierra Leone’s coffee market is significantly less developed.

In previous years, the country’s coffee exports and farmgate prices were regulated by the Sierra Leone Produce Marketing Board. Unfortunately, the country’s farmgate prices were lower than the global average price at the time – which was another reason for the widespread decline in coffee production.  Today, it is believed that farmgate prices in Sierra Leone are around 40% to 50% of the global average price. 

Wahlid says up to 80% of the country’s coffee is exported, and can now be directly purchased by private companies. International traders buy between 70% and 75% of annual production volumes, while the remaining volumes are purchased by local traders or “unofficial” exporters. 

The latter are traders who don’t officially (or legally) declare where the green coffee is being shipped to. Walid tells me that most of this coffee is smuggled to neighbouring countries, such as Liberia and Guinea – where it most likely cannot be traced back to Sierra Leone.

Exporters sometimes have buying agents visit farms around three to four months prior to harvest. These agents can lend money to producers, usually based on the premise that the farmer will provide them with a certain volume of coffee.

It’s also common for buying agents from neighbouring countries to visit farms before the harvest period begins. However, these agents are only allowed to purchase up to 25% of the total harvest.

During the harvest season, buying agents will collect coffee from farms, pay the producers, and then transport the coffee to a consolidating agent. This agent will combine all the coffee together into trucks and ship it to exporters – which can result in less of a focus on quality control.

Coffee consumption in Sierra Leone

Despite its long history of coffee production, consumption remains low in Sierra Leone. For most people in the country, coffee is seen as a luxury item.

Those who do drink it usually prepare coffee by boiling roasted whole beans or ground coffee in a large pot. Street vendors often sell this from kiosks in larger cities and towns.

Walid says instant coffee products are also popular.

“Instant Nescafé products imported from the Ivory Coast were first introduced to Sierra Leone in 2010,” he tells me. “These products are affordable and convenient, [so more people are buying them].”

However, Jeremy says that coffee consumption is starting to develop in the country.

“There is a developing coffee culture in Sierra Leone,” he tells me. “There are two or three roasters and coffee shops in Freetown, which is the capital city,” he says. 

“They also brew and sell coffee grown in the country,” he adds.

Walid explains that consumption of coffee typically increases significantly during Ramadan, when Muslim people pray for extended periods. This is mainly because coffee can be used as an appetite suppressant during fasting periods.

Addressing challenges in the sector

There are many difficulties which face coffee farmers in Sierra Leone, but one of the most significant issues is child labour.

A 2021 report from the US Department of Labor found that more than 35% of children aged between five and 14 in Sierra Leone are being forced to work. And while the report stated that the country’s government had made “‘moderate’ advancement in efforts to eliminate the worst forms of child labour”, there is still much progress to be made to end child labour altogether.

Beyond child labour, Jeremy says that low production volumes and interest in coffee production remains key issues, too.

“There is plenty of demand for cocoa, so production volumes are high for this cash crop,” he says. “The cocoa market receives more investment and has higher standards of quality control, but this has not happened for the coffee sector. 

“There is the capacity to grow Sierra Leone’s coffee sector, but current market conditions can’t support the growth,” he adds. 

Despite this, Jeremy tells me that the country’s government is interested in developing the industry.

Wahlid, meanwhile, agrees, but says the government needs to provide further support.

“In previous years, the government set a universal farmgate price that was calculated in a way to maximise its revenue,” he says. “However, the government currently does not dictate farmgate prices, so the market regulates itself.”

While this market model may work in other coffee-producing countries, it’s clear that both investment and policy are needed if Sierra Leone’s coffee industry is to develop. At present, there are no policies in place encouraging banks to provide long-term loans to farm workers. While short-term credit facilities are available, interest rates can often exceed 25%.

Some NGOs and overseas governments are doing what they can to support coffee production in the country. For instance, earlier this year, the European Union launched the Boosting Agriculture and Food Security (BAFS) project. Among other pledges, the programme aims to provide more support to supply chain actors in Sierra Leone’s coffee, cocoa, and cashew agricultural industries.

In addition to this, the World Bank is currently running several initiatives in the country. These include a Smallholder Commercialisation and Agribusiness Development Project which hopes to “foster productive business linkages between smallholder farmers and selected agribusiness firms and other commodity off-takers”.

Following decades of conflict and political instability, Sierra Leone’s coffee sector continues to struggle. While there is certainly potential for it to grow higher-quality coffee, a lack of adequate finance, legislation, and government oversight means more support is essential.

Furthermore, while there is interest from the specialty coffee sector in Coffea stenophylla, any attempts to scale coffee production will certainly require more investment and interest.

Enjoyed this? Then read our article exploring coffee production in Ghana.

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However, the country has a rich history of coffee consumption, which is only continuing to grow. The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) estimates that Saudi Arabia will import around 200,000 60kg bags across the 2022/23 crop year.

So, could the gap between these two figures ever close? To learn more about Saudi Arabia’s coffee sector, I spoke with two local coffee professionals. Read on to find out more about how the country’s coffee production is changing.

You may also like our article on the history of Mocha coffee & Yemeni coffee culture.

A profile of Saudi Arabian coffee production

Coffee production in Saudi Arabia is mostly concentrated in three regions in the southwest of the country: the Jazan region around the city of the same name, Hejazi, and Asir. Most of the coffee produced here is consumed domestically, as well as being exported to other Middle Eastern countries.

In the region around Jazan alone, it’s estimated that more than 79,000 coffee plants are growing on the steep hillsides of the area’s mountain ranges. The climate is moderate, with high levels of humidity and rainfall, which makes it ideal for growing coffee.

Several unique coffee varieties grow in Saudi Arabia, including four by the name of Khawlani, Berri, Harari, and Bahri. It’s believed that the Bahri variety was transported from Brazil via Turkey, having been brought to Saudi Arabia for cultivation some years ago.

In Saudi Arabia, flowering usually begins in late March before coffee cherries mature for around six months. Once harvested and processed, the beans are sorted and graded, often by colour, before they are sold to exporters or roasters.

Almohanad Almarwai is the co-founder and CEO of the Arabian Coffee Institute (ACI). He tells me that Saudi people generally prefer lighter roasts compared to most other Middle Eastern countries.

“In Saudi Arabia, people tend to drink a light roast [that is roasted to just before] first crack,” he says. “Some of the more common flavour notes are raisins, dates, other dried fruits, dark chocolate, and spices such as cardamom and cinnamon.

“Saudi’s coffee drinkers tend to prefer more flavourful and complex coffees, which is why we add spices like cardamom, cinnamon, and cloves,” he adds.

Initiatives to increase coffee production

Over the past few years, there have been several attempts to bolster coffee production in Saudi Arabia.

One of the more notable initiatives is the Saudi government’s Vision 2030, which seeks to diversify the nation’s economy and thereby reduce dependence on oil exports. As part of this initiative, the government launched the 2022 Year of Saudi Coffee campaign, which also aims to promote domestic coffee consumption.

Through this programme, the Saudi Arabian government plans to grow around 5,000 tonnes of higher-quality coffee every year, with plans to export at a major scale by 2040.

“Saudi is aiming to be one of the leading coffee-producing countries [over the next couple of decades],” Almohanad tells me. “We are also experimenting with different processing methods.

“The Middle East has always been a major hub for coffee, so the Saudi government is planning to revive this [in the coming years],” he adds.

Alongside bolstering production, there is also significant interest in increasing the domestic consumption of specialty coffee.

“When specialty coffee was first introduced to Middle Eastern countries around late 2013, consumers were already used to coffee being a complex drink which is full of flavours,” Almohanad explains. “This is why consumers were easily acclimated to specialty coffee.”

The number of specialty roasters and coffee shops in the country are steadily on the rise, as well as organisations such as the newly-founded ACI.

The institute is currently creating a coffee curriculum in Arabic that will be used to educate national coffee professionals and consumers, as well as informing international markets on different farming, processing, and brewing methods in the Middle East.

Overcoming challenges in the Saudi Arabian coffee sector

But despite the launch of these initiatives, coffee production in Saudi Arabia still faces challenges.

Towards the end of the 20th century, the country shifted its focus to make oil a key export for the Saudi Arabian economy. As a result, many people abandoned coffee production in favour of other, more profitable industries, which meant there were huge declines in production and some farms were abandoned.

“[As such], coffee plants in Saudi Arabia are old, which naturally results in low yields,” Almohanad explains. “The plants need more attention; I sometimes still find primary and secondary defects.”

What’s more, rising global temperatures are negatively affecting Saudi coffee production. In December 2021, Arab News reported that coffee farms in the region around the city of Jazan were some of the worst affected in the country because of lower levels of rainfall.

To add to the already difficult growing conditions, coffee farms in Saudi Arabia are typically located on the steep hillsides of mountains, which makes it difficult to implement proper irrigation systems.

“Moreover, rainfall levels in [areas such as Jazan] are very unpredictable and are often insufficient for coffee cultivation,” Almohanad says.

Aside from climate-related challenges, a lack of formal coffee knowledge and investment in technical assistance is also hindering production. Many Saudi coffee farmers have minimal access to research, best agricultural practices, and updated farming technologies, which has held back significant development of coffee production.

However, with the government’s drive to promote the production of Saudi Arabian coffee, both yield and quality could improve in the future.

Looking to the future

Although Saudi Arabia’s coffee export levels are still largely negligible, there is certainly potential for production levels to grow.

In fact, a 2017 research paper found that with the appropriate resources and infrastructure, the Saudi coffee sector’s share of the global market could increase as high as 2%. The researchers also concluded that coffee production could be scaled mostly in the southern and southwestern parts of the country.

By the end of 2021, around 400,000 coffee trees were planted across 600 farms in the country, which are capable of producing about 800 tonnes of coffee each year.

Furthermore, as a part of its 2030 Vision, the Saudi government aims to plant a total of 1.3 million coffee trees by 2025 to boost production levels, as well as developing direct trade relationships with smallholder farmers.

In the long term, there will be several programmes put in place to support farmers with training, achieving organic certification, and marketing their coffees.

There have also been efforts to protect coffee production in Saudi Arabia. In 2019, the Saudi Heritage Preservation Society filed a UNESCO application to protect traditional Khawlani coffee production methods in Saudi Arabia.

Khawlani coffee beans, which are named after the tribe that first cultivated them, are some of the most highly-prized coffee beans in the Middle East. Typically, traditional Khawlani coffee farming techniques are passed down through generations, which means there is a lack of more formal and documented agricultural practices.

Support from local roasters

In order for the country’s coffee sector to grow sustainably, support from roasters is essential.

Many professionals in the Saudi coffee industry are working with local farmers to produce higher-quality coffee.

Osamah Al-Awaam is the founder of Roasting House. He tells me why he donated several Behmor roasters to Saudi farmers.

“For us, it’s not just a donation; it’s a necessity,” he says. “If we want farmers to understand what we are looking for [with the coffee they produce], we have to give them the chance to taste it.

“We need to connect more roasters with the farmers,” he adds.

He also says that with the support of roasters, some Saudi farmers are starting to experiment with different processing methods. In some cases, this means moving away from traditional natural processing methods, and adopting newer and more innovative techniques such as anaerobic fermentation.

Osamah explains that more and more of the younger generations working at all levels of the country’s coffee industry have started to attend coffee events and participate in competitions, which also serves to further increase exposure for specialty coffee in the country.

While Saudi Arabia’s specialty coffee industry may still be in its early stages, there is great potential for the sector to grow in the coming years.

With continued support from the government, as well as the private sector, the country could become a more important part of the global coffee industry.

As more coffee plants are cultivated in the country, it will be interesting to see if it is able to meet its ambitious goals for increasing coffee production.

Enjoyed this? Then read our article on coffee culture in Iran.

Photo credits: Tony Pramana, Osamah Alawwam, ASH Cafés

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Coffee is the country’s second-largest commodity export, but production has steadily declined since the early 2000s. Throughout the 1970s and 80s, Côte d’Ivoire was one of Africa’s largest producers of coffee, particularly of robusta – with annual export volumes often exceeding 300,000 tonnes.

So why have production levels dropped so significantly, and is there potential for the country to regain its position in the global coffee market? I spoke to two local coffee experts to find out. Read on to find out what they told me.

You might also like our article on coffee & conflict in the Democratic Republic of Congo.

A brief history of coffee in Côte d’Ivoire

The French colonised Côte d’Ivoire in the late 19th century. Coffee was introduced not long after, and it’s believed this was the work of a French colonist by the name of Arthur Verdier.

However, it was another 30 years until coffee was grown on a commercial level. Up until this point, farmers cultivated small volumes of Coffea liberica: a rare coffee species which originated from neighbouring Liberia.

At some point in the early 20th century, robusta came to Côte d’Ivoire from Java and the Congo, which at that time was colonised by Belgium. In the years that followed, the country’s coffee industry boomed. Between 1945 and 1958, annual production increased from around 36,000 tonnes to some 112,500 tonnes.

After the country became independent from France in 1960, coffee production volumes rose even further. During the 1970s, Côte d’Ivoire was the third-largest coffee producing country in the world after Brazil and Colombia.

In 2000, robusta production peaked at 380,000 tonnes. Unfortunately, however, ongoing civil unrest which took place over the following decades had devastating effects on the country’s coffee sector. Between 2002 and 2011, two civil wars resulted in a significant fall in coffee production.

An overview of coffee production in Côte d’Ivoire today

Despite declining production volumes, Côte d’Ivoire is still one of the largest coffee producers in Africa. According to the USDA, it’s estimated that the country will export 800,000 60kg bags in 2022/23.

For the most part, the country only produces robusta, which is grown at altitudes between 300 and 400 m.a.s.l.

However, the country is also known for a hybrid of robusta and arabica – referred to as arabusta  – which is grown in mountainous areas around the city of Man. Arabusta was first cultivated in the 1960s after the country’s first President, Felix Houphouet-Boigny, wanted producers to grow a new coffee that tasted sweeter and milder than robusta. As a result of this, arabusta was marketed as the “Presidential Coffee”.

Currently, very few farmers grow arabusta, despite its more desirable characteristics. This is because the plant grows at a much slower rate than robusta; it takes around two years for arabusta to produce cherry. However, it’s important to also note that arabusta plants have a longer lifespan than robusta.

In Côte d’Ivoire, coffee is mostly grown in the regions of Abboisso, Abengourou, and Divo. Abboiso is one of the main coffee-growing areas, located approximately 100km northeast of the capital city Yamoussoukro.

The Abengourou region is around 100km northeast of Abboiso, but, sadly, many of the coffee farms here are neglected. Naturally, this means the coffee trees are old and produce small quantities of low-quality coffee.

Divo, meanwhile, is approximately 200km northeast of Abidjan, the country’s largest and most economically significant city. This region is home to the National Agricultural Research Centre (CNRA) facility. However, similarly to Abboiso, cocoa is the main cash crop for farmers in this region, followed by rubber and coffee.

Other regions that grow coffee in the country include Dimbokro, Bongouanou, Gagnoa, Man, Danané, Agboville, Daloa, San Pedro, Soubré, and Sassandra. However, across the country, coffee production volumes are low compared to other cash crops – namely cassava, palm oil, banana, pineapple, and coconut.

Hadi Beydoun is the founder and CEO of Café Continent, the first specialty coffee shop in Côte d’Ivoire. He provides some insight into these low levels of coffee production.

“There is a lack of information on coffee production in the country,” he says. “People know that there is a lot of cocoa grown, but don’t necessarily know about coffee.”

Processing and trading

Coffee plants in Côte d’Ivoire flower continually throughout the year. Generally speaking, farmers harvest up to 250kg of cherry per hectare, and this is mostly carried out by hand between August and January.

Most coffee in the country undergoes natural processing. Unfortunately, some of the coffee produced in the country has a significant amount of defects, because of historically poor quality control during processing and other post-harvest issues.

“I think coffee quality has dropped over the past few years,” Hadi says. “This is partly because the government mainly focuses on cocoa production.

“There are a lot of defective beans,” he adds. “[As a specialty coffee shop], it can be difficult for us to find high-quality coffee.”

In addition to this, ongoing conflict in the country is also contributing to the overall low quality of coffee.

“Because of political instability and civil war, farmers want to harvest and [then quickly sell their coffee],” Hadi explains. “What’s more, producers would rather grow cocoa and [liquid sap for] rubber than coffee.”

As a result of these factors, Hadi adds that few coffee farmers are willing to invest in new harvesting or processing techniques because there is little financial incentive to do so.

Magdi Abdul Reda is the Production Manager at Café Continent. He tells me that most coffee producers in the country belong to co-operatives.

“Most of them are family businesses,” he says. “Most of them grow small amounts of coffee that [aren’t worth transporting] to bigger cities, which leaves them no choice but to join co-operatives.”

“The co-operatives sell the farmers’ coffee after harvest,” Hadi says. “Some buyers [will carry out more] basic post-harvest processing, as they have the machinery and equipment [to better prepare] beans for export.”

Grading also plays a big role in identifying the quality of the coffee produced in Côte d’Ivoire, which has its own grading system.

“Grade 0 is the highest, while grade 2 is the lowest quality,” Hadi says. “But even when we receive grade 0 coffee, we still have to sort it because there can be many stones and sticks in the beans.”

Once it’s ready for export, Ivorian coffee is shipped to a number of different countries, including the Netherlands, the US, France, Italy, Germany, Japan, Canada, and the UK. Coffee imported from Côte d’Ivoire is often added to blends rather than being sold as a single origin.

Domestic consumption

There is no real heritage of coffee consumption in Côte d’Ivoire.

“People typically drink instant Nescafé coffee,” Hadi explains. “Besides that, there is no coffee culture in the country.”

Magdi tells me that in Côte d’Ivoire, coffee consumption is related to socioeconomic status. Most lower-income people will drink instant coffee or café noir: bitter-tasting brewed coffee which is often served from roadside kiosks. Among wealthier people in the country, coffee capsules are considered to be the highest-quality coffee that is generally available.

There is also little shared knowledge around brewing and roasting coffee, which Hadi says results in a limited number of ways to brew coffee. However, he explains that Café Continent is working to promote specialty coffee and provide more educational resources for consumers.

Challenges and moving forward

Sadly, Côte d’Ivoire’s coffee industry faces many challenges. Ongoing conflicts have led to a distinct lack of funding and investment in development and infrastructure.

Hadi says there has been little investment in developing post-harvest infrastructure, which has a major impact on overall coffee quality.

“[There are few] quality control checks in the country,” he explains. “This is one of the many reasons why quality is so low.”

Magdi adds that illiteracy is one of the biggest challenges producers face.

“Most farmers do not know how to read and write,” he says. “Some of the cooperative leaders are literate, [which can result in unethical business practices as farmers can be taken advantage of]”.

However, there is certainly potential for coffee production to increase.

In 2014, Reuters reported that the government invested 8 billion CFA francs (US $15 million) to boost annual production volumes to 400,000 tonnes by 2020.

Unfortunately, these production goals were somewhat ambitious, and it will most likely take much longer to reach these volumes.

For now, improving access to education for coffee farmers, as well as investing in adequate infrastructure and new coffee plants, are the most pressing factors that could help to bolster coffee production.

Magdi and Hadi both emphasise that if the government and private sector stakeholders invest in coffee as much as the cocoa sector, the country’s coffee industry could see steady growth once again.

Coffee production in Côte d’Ivoire is arguably a shadow of what it used to be. It’s clear that civil unrest has had a significant impact on coffee production, and many farmers have, in the years since, opted for other, more resilient cash crops.

“There is a lot of work to be done,” Hadi concludes. “We are working hard to improve coffee quality.”

If more industry stakeholders can invest in the country’s coffee sector – as well as improving domestic consumption – then there may well be hope for coffee production in Côte d’Ivoire to increase in the years ahead.

Enjoyed this? Then try our article on how the civil war is affecting the Ethiopian coffee industry.

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